Marriage/Chana Miller Essay

Fully explain and concisely illustrate two (2) of the â€Å"Theoretical Perspectives on Families† discussed in your text (pp. 37–49). Use families presented in television programs, the movies, novels, or the Bible to illustrate the selected perspectives. The functionalist perspective focuses on stability and cooperation and emphasizes the importance of the family in maintaining the stability of society. The functionalist theory states that marriage is a microcosmic replica of the larger society, and the family fills six basic needs for the survival of society. Family life is organized in ways that are useful or functional for society. Despite being antiquated, the breadwinner-homemaker family is an efficient way to organize family life. The husband works outside the home while the wife does the housework and child care. The functionalist perspective is a male-dominant perspective (Strong et. al. 2011). In modern times, feminists have attacked patriarchy view and many women resisted male domination. The Feminist Perspective argued that the functionalist view is inadequate and idealized. It stated that gender defines social roles and cultural characteristics. Yet these roles have no biological reason behind them but are culturally dictated; therefore, they are socially constructed. These roles appear to be constructed to give men power. Experience of living in a family is different for women than it is for men. Families can be sources of social inequality, especially reinforcing the inequality of women. Women having economic power can lead to many challenges within the family, and within society (Strong et. al. 2011). Independence is a good quality for feminists, but not for functionalists. Since families involve domination and struggle, there must be compromise and good communication or there can be many problems, leading to domestic violence and other such abuse. During the 1950s, the Cleavers on the television show â€Å"Leave It to Beaver† epitomized the American family. In 1960, the majority of American households were like the Cleavers: made up of a breadwinner father, a homemaker mother, and their kids. During most of the 1950s and 1960s, white middle-class families dominated programs. The 1960s, however, began to showcase more structural variability, with an increase in families headed by a single widowed parent, such as in The Andy Griffith Show. (Fleahman et. al. 2009) Today, â€Å"traditional† families with a working husband, an unemployed wife, and one or more children make up a very small percentage of the nation’s households. And as America’s families have changed, the image of the family portrayed on television has changed accordingly. Today’s television families run the gamut from two-career families to two single mothers and their children and an unmarried couple who cohabitate in the same house. Another factor reshaping family life has been a massive influx of mothers into the work force. As wives have assumed a larger role in their family’s financial support, they have felt justified in demanding that husbands perform more child care and housework. Feminism has also been a major force that has transformed American family life. The women’s liberation movement attacked the societal expectation that women defer to the needs of spouses and children as part of their roles as wives and mothers. The larger mainstream of the women’s movement articulated a powerful critique of the idea that child care and housework were the apex of a woman’s accomplishments or her sole means of fulfillment (Strong et. al. 2011). Historically, television has promoted a traditional family model with wise parents, little serious conflict, and mostly conforming behavior. Families on television during the 1950s and much of the 1960s talked with each other, and parents always helped their children through adolescence. Although the 1970s had a number of sentimental portrayals, such as â€Å"Little House on the Prairie† or the still popular â€Å"Brady Bunch,† it also experimented with more diverse relationship patterns in such favorites as â€Å"All in the Family† and â€Å"The Jeffersons. † In â€Å"All in the Family. † family members were likely to ignore, withdraw, and oppose one another, in addition to showing support and caring. (Fleahman et. al. 2009) During the 1980s, â€Å"The Cosby Show† dominated public perceptions of family portrayals with an enviable family. Primetime soap operas such as â€Å"Dallas† and â€Å"Dynasty† explored the seamier side of extended families. The end of the 1980s saw a more cynical view of the family in such comedy hits as â€Å"Roseanne† and â€Å"The Simpsons. † By the 1990s family relationships were again portrayed more positively in terms of psychological health on shows such as â€Å"Family Matters† and â€Å"Home Improvement. † (Fleahman et. al. 2009) Although conflicts in family programs have increased rapidly from the late 1970s, family members almost always successfully resolved the conflicts by way of positive, constructive, and pro-social communication.

People as a huge asset Essay

1.1INTRODUCTION Organisations are made up of people and people are a huge asset to any organization. To be more successful in achieving their goal and objectives; organisations needs to have an understanding about their human assets, their behavior, tendencies, best practice etc..† Leadership is the ability of one person to influence a group of persons toward the achievement of common goals† (Yukl, 1994). Influencing others means that leaders must have an understanding about their behavior, which can only happen when they themselves understand their values, assumptions, beliefs and expectations. Understanding oneself means one must carry out self-assessment/evaluation as this is very important for leaders today. I will be carrying out an assessment about the benefit of self -assessment/evaluation to leaders today and the importance of understanding human behavior in oraganisations. 1.2 DEFINITION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR Human behavior is the way people behave and which can be influence by culture, emotions, attitudes, values, ethics, genetic etc.. Depending on the society and environment, human behavior can either be common, usual, acceptable or unacceptable. Human behavior can either be learnt as we relate to our environment; for example, tying your shoes is a learned behavior or it can be innate which can be inherited through genes. 1.3THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING HUMAN BEHAVIOR TO AN ORGANIZATION Organisations depend on the behavior of both individual and teams to achieve their goals and objectives; as such it is very critical for organisations to have thorough understanding of human behavior. Understanding human behavior is a  key to organisational success. Human behavior defines how people work together and relate with one another. Communication being the cornerstone of behavior can only be effective when people understand one another. Interpersonal conflict can be reduced in an organisation once there’s an understanding of human behavior. Behavior can influence negatively on the achievement of an organization’s goals and objectives if not manage well; will lead to poor output and failure. Organisations need to plan their training programme, understanding the behavior of its employees will inform the planning process, thereby ensuring that training needs are effectively met. An effective understanding of the diverse behavior of personnel is important. Evidence has shown that as people get to know one another, they became less concerned about differences if they see themselves as sharing more important characteristics, such as personality and values, that represent deep-level diversity† (Stephen P Robbins & Timothy A Judge, Organizational Behavior -15th Editions) A co-operative team that knows how to work with one another can produce better result than those who have problems relating to one another. 1.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING HUMAN BEHAVIOR BY LEADERS Organisations need strong leadership to achieve its goals and objectives. An organisation is only as successful as its leadership. Leadership is the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of a vision or set of goals. Individuals or group can only be influence when there’s an understanding of their behavior. Business necessity, enlightenment about differences and moral fortitude have combine to push organisations into hiring a diverse set of employees, as a result managing this diversity has proven to be a challenge to leaders†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Leaders can effectively manage this challenge through understanding this diversity. A leader who fails to understand his followers thereby focusing at a very superficial level by commanding others to do their will; is at the bottom of the leadership level. Deeper understanding provides more options, give one more potential tools, and frankly, makes one a powerful leader (Stephen P Robbins & Timothy A Judge, Organizational Behav ior -15th Editions). This is a trait of level 5 leadership. â€Å"Understanding the behavior of followers will assist leaders in putting together teams to manage projects and it will also assist in  assigning task to employees in a way that will put to efficient use each member’s strength rather than their weakness â€Å" (www.employment-testing.com) Attempting to influencing individuals without understanding why they behave the way they do, might yield random or unpredictable effect and this will lead to leaders being unsuccessful as followers will be alienated; whereas understanding the personalities of subordinates and superiors informs leaders as to others expectations and provides insights into motivation, competitiveness and interpersonal relationships and communication. 1.5 LEADERSHIP SELF-EVALUATION/SELF-ASSESSMENT As leaders the ability to influence people has to be continuously improved; and the first step in achieving that will be by knowing yourself and gaining understanding of your leadership style, skills, traits, competencies, abilities, personality type and experience. According to Kevin Sharer of AMGEN CEO and president, â€Å"Leadership has many voices. You need to be who you are, not to emulate someone else.† An apt statement as leaders has the responsibility of influencing others in the achievement of goals and objectives; an achievement that will be almost impossible to attain when followers lacks faith in their leader. People normally have faith in authentic leaders as they are leaders who not only know what they believe in and value but also act on that values and beliefs candidly and openly. Most leaders are unaware of the effect their emotional intelligence has on their superiors and subordinates, many a time we blame negative outcome to those around us, all the time bei ng totally blind to the fact that our personality might have had effect on others action. â€Å"Those who use the emotional intelligence framework to guide their thoughts and actions may find it easier to create trust in relationship, harness energy under pressure, and sharpen their ability to make sound decisions-in other words, they increase their potential for success in the workplace†(Jones and Bartlett learning PTT) only by carrying out self-assessment/evaluation will you be able to understand your emotional intelligence and other traits. As leaders one should know what their strength and weaknesses as this will enable them build on their strength and march it to their leadership opportunities, it will also assist in the development of their weaknesses and allows for the  elimination of threats to leadership. 1.6 THE BENEFITS OF SELF- ASSESSMENT/SELF-EVALUATION TO LEADERS TODAY. Most of the benefits of self-assessment have already been discuss above, however some benefits are; A.Develop Emotional Intelligence When taking time to self-reflect you are looking inwards. Self-awareness gives you the ability the ability to understand your emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values and goals, and recognize their impact on others you are leading. Being self-aware will aid you in controlling or redirecting your disruptive emotions and impulses and adapt to changing circumstances. Building these emotional intelligence components will improve your leadership. B. ASSISTS IN BECOMING EFFECTIVE LEADER Authentic leaders are clear on their core values, and this will help to strengthen leadership integrity and lead you to better decisions. Understanding your core values will build followers trust in you as a leader and this will make decision making easier as our integrity is often put to the test during stressful and difficult times. C. BUILD SELF-CONFIDENCE Confidence is crucial for leaders. It helps in effective communications, decision making, and influence building. People will see you as you see yourself, being aware of your strength as leader will build self-confidence and this will increase team effectiveness.

Alternative Health

Medical intervention is a continuous quest for health care management. Whether conventional, complementary or alternative medicine, the aim of   health care provider is to give relief to pain or to cure illness of   their patients temporarily or permanently .Alternative medicine is a practice of medicine that prevents or treats disease or ailments without the use of drugs or undergoing diagnostic procedures. It includes chiropractic, acupuncture, yoga, use of medicinal plants, homeopathy, meditation, massage and anything that requires self awareness and belief   that the body can heal itself.The use of alternative medicine is fast growing despite the result of many clinical studies showing its side effects and adverse reactions especially when combined with other procedure. It is therefore important that health care seekers should inform their health care provider of their present condition and current treatment to prevent unfavorable interaction of different treatment modality .DISCUSSIONThe world of medicine faces a continuous challenge on how to uplift the level   of health care in the country. There are organizations that spend a lot of money to provide the best drug that can cure certain illness. Several funding companies are   searching for the best medication. Clinical trials are continuously conducting studies for the drug development. A variety of medical methods have been accepted by medical practice due to many scientific explanations for their effectiveness and most often than not,   these procedures cost a lot of money.However, absence of side effects and adverse reactions is not an assurance. There are also incidents of unsatisfied medical treatment outcome. Medical lawsuits are becoming rampant nowadays resulting to decline in conventional health visits. In accordance, several health care methods are becoming more accepted as a way of battling ailments. These factors add to the popularity of alternative medicine.Although many people in less developed countries have used alternative medicine, it has not proven to cause 100% therapeutic effect. Many medical literatures have been discussing alternative medicine with complementary medicine. It should be remembered   that alternative medicine is a practice used in place of conventional medicine while complementary medicine is an alternative medicine with concurrent use of conventional medicine.Conventional medicine is medicine practiced by professionals such as Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine and other allied health professionals like physical therapist, psychologist and registered nurse. It is also known as Western medicine, orthodox, biomedicine or regular medicine.In a study conducted by Barnes and colleagues (2002), the use of complementary and alternative medicine among adults in United States has been revealed. They collected data from the noninstitutionalized population using a computer-assisted personal interview among adults age 18 and ab ove.They found out that 60% of the adults were using some form of complementary and alternative medicine. The   most commonly used   therapies were use of prayer for   health , natural products, deep breathing exercises,   meditation, chiropractic care, yoga , massage , and diet-based therapies. Ernst (2000) revealed in his research the 9% to 65% prevalence of use of complementary/alternative medicine. The given form for treatment was chiropractic in the USA but showed considerable discrepancies.The study suggests that complementary/alternative medicine therapies are frequently used and increasing. â€Å"The true prevalence of use of complementary/alternative medicine in the general population remains uncertain†.Alternative medicine has been practiced from eastern to western part of the world from 2,000-6,000 years of history (Dworkin, 2006). The definition and scope of alternative medicine is so broad that falls into one definition; a   practice of medicine which r equires self-awareness, treatment or prevention of disease without the use of expensive drugs and need not undergo through the   high cost   of   diagnostic procedures. It includes all healing approaches that do not use the conventional Western medicine.Alternative medicine includes acupuncture, aromatherapy, Ayurveda medicine, Chinese medicine, chiropractic, herbal medicine, homeopathy, massage, meditation, naturopathy, therapeutic touch and Yoga.   

Colonialism in Southeast Asia and the Austral and Pacific Realms Essay

Colonialism in Southeast Asia and the Austral and Pacific Realms - Essay Example However, though the Philippines became subjected to another power, they still maintained some of their native belief systems. Colonization of the Philippine realm was due to its potential in commercial success with other countries. During the 18th century, the Spanish population was significantly less but soon the population started expanding. Intermarriage of the Spanish and the Philippines led to the growth of a very strong community that became the most powerful politically and economically (McCoy, 2001). A consequent growth of the Spanish community in Philippine later took over the Philippine realm. Spanish colonization of the Philippine realm did not face confrontation by indigenous states supported by aristocracies, bureaucracies, or religious organization contrast to other European colonizers elsewhere in Southeast Asia. In addition, the Spanish rule over the Philippines defined the modern state of the Philippines in matters concerning the social, religious, and ideological underpinnings. The Spanish rule over the Philippines had less impact to them economically. However, there was a considerable impact on the people politically and religiously. To have full control of the Philippine realm, the Spaniards gradually abolished hereditary nobility and dignity, limited power to Philippine chiefs, encouraged slavery and subsequently secured themselves high aristocratic positions in the state. Since Philippine had a history of economical flourish, the Spaniards took this as an opportunity to excel, expand, and uplift their country’s economic status (Lockard, 2006). They used water to transport silver, gold, and other materials of exchange to Europe where it graced the lives of the European elite. Philippine consequently turned to a regional trading area in Southeast Asia. The key reason that enabled the Spaniards to colonize Philippine was the close relationship the state had with the church. Spain being a Christian realm wanted to convert

Written Assignment 3 - Bank of America Corporation

Written 3 - Bank of America Corporation - Assignment Example Purchasing countrywide financial and Merrill lynch can be termed as an unwise decision taken by the company (Richard, 2013) as they did this while the economy faced a financial crisis. Therefore, the company failed to make sound decisions relating to its operations. Bank of America serves as the largest consumer bank in the United States of America. It has a large number of members, both locally and internationally. Being a global company allows it to reach a wider group of customers, thus increasing its competitiveness. More to these, the company deals with a multiple of activities. The activities include consumer and small business banking, corporate banking, credit cards, mortgage lending, and asset management. The various activities contribute to the success of the company as losses in one segment can be countered by profits in another sector. More to this, the law suit against the company exposes it to negative publicity, which may lead to greater losses of the company. The bank also faces a financial shortage, which makes the running of the organization difficult. According to the company’s balance sheet for this period, the company experienced a decrease in its cash resources by $12912 million, its fixed assets dropped by $1194 million, while the noncurrent assets increased by $42804 million. The debtors of the company increased by $3708 million. This shows that the company’s operations became worse from 2009 to 2010. More to these, the liabilities of the company grew by $44806 million, thus depicting financial difficulties for the company. In terms of shareholding, the number of preference shares reduced by more than half within this period, but the ordinary shareholding increased marginally. However, the company received a decline in the amount of total equity from 2009 to 2010. Given the need to retain, and attract more customers to the company, the bank should focus on promoting the convenience of

In what respects has sovereignty been redefined in the post-Cold War Essay

In what respects has sovereignty been redefined in the post-Cold War era - Essay Example The fierce cold war between United States and former Soviet Union created lot of tensions across the world during that period. The superiority of these political powers forced other countries to align towards either of them for their safety and security. At the same time, such polarization towards either of these superpowers was forced other countries to formulate their foreign policies and economic activities strictly in accordance with the interests of the superpower related to them. In other words, during cold war era, countries which sought the protection from either of the superpowers lost their sovereignty and they forced to support all the actions of the superpower under which they aligned or polarized. Thus the individuality, freedom, and identity of such countries were in question during the cold war era. Many changes happened in international politics during the post cold war era. Many countries which were once sidelined under the banner of these superpowers, started to bre athe free air and experience freedom. For example, countries like Poland, Bulgaria and Rumania were under the Soviet banner during the cold war era and after the destruction of Soviet Union, these countries started to embrace democracy and experienced the value of human rights and freedom. Such countries started to speak in their own language on international political affairs instead of speaking in the language of communism or the Soviet Union after the cold war era. They restored their sovereignty and individuality.

Final Consulting Report Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Final Consulting Report - Assignment Example In this sense, we already live in the â€Å"future† of wireless. The current state of affairs with its ubiquitous LAN connections and 3G access would have been hard to imagine just fifteen to 20 years ago. It is possible to imagine that the next â€Å"future† of this critical technology could be just as difficult to imagine today as the current iteration might have been to a generation of dial-up using chat room denizens. On the other hand, two decades of trends in changes in the marketing and technology of wireless provide some clues to the expected future of the technology, along with the technological developments and directions provided by service providers. Additionally, developments in the global market for wireless communications suggest possible futures for internet and communications. This paper reviews the history of wireless communications and links to the future, along with developments in the technology of that makes wireless communication possible. Finally , it concludes with predictions as to the direction in global applications of wireless In its initial stages, wireless communication faced several hurdles that made it most appropriate for indoor, limited networking and required new conceptions of network and the internet. Initially, limits on signal processing meant that wireless communication had far less capacity than tradition, wired LANs. As a result, the technology was only appropriate for applications in which the communication area was strictly limited and mobility within that area was highly prized. Early adopters of the technology, then, included inventory warehouses, logistics operations, hospitals and universities (LaMaire 1996). Geographically, wireless technologies were first adapted in countries and industries which were already technically advanced, with military applications in

Topic Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Topic Critique - Essay Example t "to the extent that an individual can learn to perform some mental skills without conscious attention, the conscious part of the brain is freed to attend to other mental activities, thus enlarging its cognitive scope (Dickinson). For example, a person who is interested in music will learn the lyrics and tunes of a song easily without giving much conscious attention to learn it. On the other hand, same person may struggle to learn mathematics in the absence of interest, even if he performs some conscious efforts. From the above examples it is clear that certain brain activities are controlling the learning capabilities of a person unknowingly. Herman Epstein suggested that periods of rapid brain growth are the times for intellectually challenging curriculum, and that plateau periods, such as in adolescence, are the times for more concrete, experiential learning rather than pushing students too soon into abstract thinking (Dickinson) The analysing powers of a person varies differently during his life span. Alcohol or drug usages may not be considered as a sin by some youths. But the same youths may regret for their activities after ten or fifteen years. In other words, same thing may be perceived differently by the same person during different stages of his life because of differences in brain activities at different periods. Music is an entity which can control and comfort the brain activities. Even distressed persons will get a soothing effect when they hear music. A calm and peaceful mind is essential for proper learning. A learner’s mind will always be under tension because of some external parameters which may have nothing to do with learning. Music can eliminate all such negative parameters of learning and can keep the learner’s mind fully focussed on the learning activity alone. All the people hate noise, but most of them like music because of its smooth rhythm and feeling it create. â€Å"The intentional use of music in the classroom will set the scene

Greatest Communicator Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Greatest Communicator - Essay Example Bill Clinton is a notable personality whose skill communication make audience yearn to listen more from the personality. Bill Clinton was at some point the president of US and pulled crowd with how he presented his speech. Additionally, Bill had good leadership skills that made him unique. Leaders need to be multi-talented so as to be there for the people. Bill Clinton displayed all these characteristics making him one of the most prominent and notable leader of all time. Bill Clinton had the most impressive communication skills any leader would want to possess. When addressing the audience, Bill Clinton would use gesture sync with words to ensure that a given message is efficiently grasped by the audience (Marcus par 3). To guide audience’s emotion and attention, he would extend his arms facing up or out. Additionally, Bill Clinton overlapped arms across the chest to show emphasis on a given statement. Moreover, he used hard-stop pacing in his word to ensure that points mention got the stress required. Use of frequent pause in statements helped to gather the attention of the audience. Visuals enabled Clinton to pass information clearly. Policy used was fewer words but more visual to ensure that the audience enjoyed the speech. In most of Clinton’s speech, monotony breakage was fostered by the addition of a story in the middle of a speech. Excellent communication skills by Clinton impacts individuals on a significant margin. When presenting a speech, it is crucial that the audience needs to enjoy the speech. Use of gestures like Bill Clinton ensures that the audience gets information clearly as well as enjoys the speech. Moreover, involving the audience in the presentation of speech makes them ride along. Direct eye contact is vital in enhancing emphasis to a given statement or speech. Moreover, it ensures that the audience’ attention does not get diverted. Bill Clinton’s good communication skills influence individual’s speech

Irony in the cask of amontillado by edgar allan poe Essay

Irony in the cask of amontillado by edgar allan poe - Essay Example There are several instances where the author uses obvious irony in the story. For instance, fatherryan.org notes that Montresor uses the word â€Å"friend† to refer to Fortunato. Ironically, he uses this term to refer to a man that he hates so much that he wishes could be dead. Another use of irony is obviously evident in the motto on Montresor’s coat of arms. Ironically the motto is an explicit warning to Fortunato, but Fortunato does not fully comprehend this fact. Other instances where the author uses irony include when Montresor toasts to Fortunato’s long life. Additionally, the masonry dialogue is obvious use of irony (fatherryan.org para.4). The author also uses subtle irony on several instances. For instance, towards the end of the story, Montresor felt his heart had grown sick. However this was not due to the remorse he felt from the cruelty of his actions, but due to the extreme dampness of the catacombs, which had become too much for him. Subtle irony is also evident almost throughout the story’s dialogue. The story’s conclusion is evidently ironic in the sense that irony fails to be possible any longer when Fortunato is finally aware of everything that is going on (fatherryan.org para.5). The author uses verbal and dramatic irony in numerous instances in the story to develop suspense, add some sense of macabre humor, and foreshadow the story’s ending. This is evident in the title, Fortunato’s name, Fortunato’s costume, and the author’s reference to mansions. The story’s title, cask, means a wine barrel. It is derived from a similar root word that forms casket, which means coffin. Therefore, the story’s title figuratively represents his casket. Another example of irony in the story is in Fortunato’s name. The name literary translates to luck or good fortune in Italian. Ironically, Fortunato is always unfortunate and headed to his death. Similarly, Fortunato’s costume is ironic because he dresses like a court jester,

The implementation of Occupational Health and Safety Act Essay

The implementation of Occupational Health and Safety Act - Essay Example 1990, CHAPTER O.1 PART III.1; 32.1-32.4). The plant is covered under the Industrial Establishment regulation of the OHS act (R.R.O. 1990, Reg. 851, s.3.). The Ontario act and the regulations for industrial establishment The plant has an open layout. The layout is segmented into various sections where specialized work is carried out. The circular saw is located in the carpentry and joinery section. Although the plant employs 50 workers, only about 10 employees are trained in the use of the circular saw. The circular saw used is an electrically powered saw. It uses its own electrical outlet and cannot be operated by any other means. It was first installed about 8 years ago by the manufacturers and is fully owned by the company. There are 5 circular saws in the work area; two are with radius of about 10 inches and the others about 8 inches in diameter. The circular saw has procedures of use that details maintenance time-lines, hours of operation and troubleshooting. Above all the designers and manufacturers have outlined in the operation manual that only authorized persons should operate the equipment. The manufactures have also suggested a restricted work area. (i) Pre-use: there is no operational checklist prior to use of the circular saw. ... (i) The area is not clearly marked as a restricted area. Un-authorised personnel usually occupy it. (ii) The work area is not clear of debris such as dust and wood chips. The sanitation and maintenance is performed at the discretion of the operators, usually after long periods. (b) Employee Training The manufacturers (designers) have provided training manuals for the equipment. However, (i) Newly assigned workers including temporary workers do not receive the prescribed level of training before operating the saw. (ii) Workers from other sections of the plant frequently use the saws without training or supervision. (iii) Training updates on use of the saw is not scheduled for any of the workers. (iv) The manuals of operation for the section (including for circular saw equipment) are not in full display therefore are hardly referenced by employees. (c) Maintenance of Equipment Regular and periodic maintenance is prescribed by the manufacturer of the circular saw. The assessment of the equipment maintenance is as follows: (i) Pre-use: there is no operational checklist prior to use of the circular saw. Therefore the saw is not always checked for lodged bits and chips stuck under the blades. The saw is not checked for performance before use e.g. there is no testing of emergency stops. (ii) Post-use: Debris from operating the saw is not cleared from away. Guards are not always deployed to restrict blade movement during cleaning. Electrical power is not turned off during post operation use. (iii) Manufacturers have completed a scheduled maintenance of the equipment. (d) Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) The use of PPE is left to the discretion of the workers. An assessment revealed the following non-compliance: (i) The

Right to Education Essay Example for Free

Right to Education Essay On 12 April 2012, in its historical decision the Supreme Court (SC) of India threw its weight behind the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. The court upheld the constitutional validity of RTE Act that guarantees children free and compulsory education from the age of 6 to 14 years of age. The judgment makes it mandatory for the government, local authorities and private schools to reserve 25 percent of their seats for ‘weaker and disadvantaged sections’ of society. The decision has wiped away many apprehensions regarding the future of the Act. It has been welcomed by academicians, politicians, journalists and others. The Union minister for human resources development Mr. Kapil Sibal, articulated, â€Å"RTE can be a model for the world†. While there has been enthusiastic praise of the judgment, concerns related to quality, finance, ensuring of 25 percent reservation in private schools and change in classroom structure cannot be thrown into the winds. The amount put aside by Finance minister Pranab Mukherjee, for the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is only Rs. 25,555 crores for 2012-13, which falls short of the recommended financial requirement of Rs 1. 82 lakh crore. From where will the rest of amount come? According to Kapil Sibal (2012) more than 90 percent of households will have to enroll their wards in government schools. Thus 90 percent of households’ wards will have poor access to education; if at all they are enrolled in schools, as the quality of education in government schools is a matter of serious concern. There is no clarity on how 25 percent reservation in private schools will be filled. There may be more than one private school in a neighborhood, so how will they decide who will go where? How will reservation in private schools be monitored? The 25 percent reservation in private schools will dramatically change the structure of classrooms in schools. Whether diversity of classroom will create democratic learning environment and enhance teaching learning process or will it put children from ‘weaker and disadvantaged sections’ in discomfited position? Concern of Quality Education One of the primary objectives of Right of Children Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 is improving quality education. The quality of elementary education, particularly in government schools, is a matter of serious concern. The quality of school education depends on various variables which includes physical infrastructure, method of teaching, learning environment, type of books, qualification of teachers, number of teachers, attendance of teachers and students and so on. There has been substantial progress in increasing enrollment with national average now at 98. 3 percent (2009-2010) according to official statistics. However, the attendance of pupils in class rooms has declined. In 2007, 73. 4 percent students enrolled for Standards I-IV/V were present in class, which has fallen to 70. 9 percent by 2011 (EPW, 2012). Fayaz Ahmad (2009) came with the findings that despite lack of staff in government schools, teachers remain absent on rotational bases. He adds that due to vacancies for teacher, absenteeism of teachers and poor infrastructure in government schools classrooms are multi-grade, i. e. one teacher attending to children from different grades in a single classroom. The attendance of teachers and students in schools is directly related with the quality of education. Furthermore, mere enrollment of children in school does not fulfill the aims of RTE. Amman Madan (2003) argues ‘the question of reform in Indian education has usually been conceived of in narrow ways – putting children in school and getting schools to function efficiently’. Despite high enrollments in schools 50 percent of children studying in the fifth grade lack the reading skills expected of children in the second grade (Annual Status of Education Report, ASER 2010). Ensuring 25 percent Reservation The RTE, Act, 2009 clause, 12 (1) (c) mandates for private schools to admit quarter of their class strength from weaker section and disadvantaged groups 1. The constitutional validity of this clause was challenged in the apex court of country. However on 12, April 2012, a bench of Chief Justice S . H. Kapadia, Justice K. S Radhakrishnan and Swatanter Kumar upheld the constitutional validity of the Act. In response to the Supreme Court order, HRD minister Kapil Sibal said, â€Å"I am very happy that the court has set all controversies at rest. One of the biggest controversies was on whether the 25 percent reservation applies to private schools or not†¦ that controversy has been set to rest. †2 Reacting to the 25 percent reservation Krishna Kumar (2012) penned down â€Å"most ambitious among its objectives is the social engineering it proposes by guaranteeing at least 25 percent share of enrolment in unaided fee-charging schools to children whose parents cannot afford the fee. † Both Krishna Kumar and Kapil Sibal did not give indepth critical insight to the provision. The questions like, what will be the mechanism of selection process of 25 percent children from ‘weaker and disadvantaged sections’. Some private schools are very reputed and provide very high quality of education and some are either at par with government schools or little ahead. There is a hierarchy of private schools which are stratified in quality education. Who will go where what will be the criteria for that? Furthermore Indian society is patriarchal in nature, boys are even served good food in comparison to girls how one can expect parents or guardians will send a girl child to these private schools, if at all they agree to send a girl child to school. The reservation benefits will go to a particular gender of society. This will further reinforce and reproduce gender bias and social inequality in society. Thus RTE itself creates a vacuum for â€Å"reproduction of culture†. Fayaz Ahmad (2009) underlines, parents prefer schooling for their girl child but prefer government schools for them in comparison to a male child. The important finding which has been revealed by Fayaz Ahmad (2009) is the enrollment shown in schools was higher than what actually it was. This was done to get mid-day meals for more and more children so that teachers can save some money to bear other hidden expenditures and avoid wrath of authorities for poor enrollment. Despite employment of Resource Persons and Zonal Resource Persons by Jammu and Kashmir government in the department of school education ,who are obliged to ensure smooth and normal functioning of schools, such kind of loopholes are observed, how can the government ensure that private schools will follow the provision of 25 percent reservation. Change in the Structure of Classroom and Beyond. The RTE Act directed all schools, including privately -run schools, to reserve 25 percent of their seats for students from socially and economically backward families. That means, quarter of students in classes will be from marginalized section of the society. This will change the structure of classes. Krishna Kumar (2012) maintains â€Å"a classroom reflecting life’s diversity will benefit children of all strata while enriching teaching experience. † He further adds â€Å"classroom life will now be experientially and linguistically richer. It will be easier to illustrate complex issues with examples drawn from children’s own lives. † He rightly articulates that class room will reflect diversity and will be experientially and linguistically richer. But his argument that classroom diversity will benefit children from weaker section of society is hypothetical and ambiguous. School education can’t be separated from its social context, those who teach and learn carry with them attitudes, beliefs, habits, customs, orientations which differ from class to class. The elite schools have their own culture which suits to children of upper class. The teaching-learning environment at these schools suits children of upper class while children from weaker section may find themselves alienated from the schools. Bernstein (1971) while examining the mode of communication of working and middle class argues that both have different mode of communication and most of the teachers in schools belong to middle class which gives edge to middle class children in learning. Bourdieu(1977) empirical research in France explores that performance of a child in school on his access to cultural capital. He maintains that children of upper classes are able to understand contents of knowledge better than their counterparts belonging to marginalized sections of society. The present experience of India with mixed or diversified classroom is not encouraging. The children from marginalized sections of society are discriminated in the classroom on the bases of gender, caste, and ethnicity. Despite Indian constitution strictly prohibits discrimination on the bases of caste and other social backgrounds and makes it a punishable act yet children from marginalized sections are discriminated in schools. How can discrimination of ‘weaker and disadvantaged sections be prevented? There are various theoretical and empirical studies which have come up with that children from lower classes are at a backfoot in schools in the learning process. They are more vulnerable when enrolled in elite schools. Conclusion Indian children now have a precious right to receive free and compulsory education from the ages of 6 to 14 years of age. The government will bear all the expenditures of schooling. The act has mandated for private schools to reserve quarter of classroom strength for deprived sections of society, which will change the structure of classrooms in elite schools to school who are not yet enrolled. However, there are many apprehensions with regard to achieving desired goals through RTE. By pressing for 25 percent reservation for the ‘weaker and disadvantaged sections’ of society, government has acknowledged poor quality in government schools where more than 90 percent of households in the country will have to enroll their children even if 25 percent reservation is implemented in true sense. This means that there will be further diversification of society in India. There are also concerns whether those enrolled in private schools will cope and adjust with education system and culture of elite schools. There are many other loop holes which are pressing and challenging in the way of RTE: quality education, funding, teacher skills and enhance of reservation policy are some major concerns. Despite the flaws in the way of RTE Act, it is important to simultaneously ensure proper implementation of the Act. —————————————- Footnotes 1. The Gazette of India, http://eoc. du. ac. in/RTE%20-%20notified. pdf 2. Dhananjay Mahapatra Himanshi Dhawan(2012) Times of India, RTE:Govt Subsidy to be based on KV expenditure, New Delhi, 13 April. References. Ahmad, Fayaz (2009) â€Å" A Sociological Study of Primary Education Among Girls: With Special Reference to Block Hajin of District Bandipora† Dissertation, Barkatullah University. Annual Status of Educational Report (2010): â€Å"Annual Status of Educational Report ( Rural) , assessed 21April 2012: http://www. pratham. org/aser08/ASER_2010_Report. pdf Bernstein, B (1973): â€Å"Class Codes and Control: Applied Studies towards a Sociology of Language†, London, Routledge Kegan Paul. Boourdieu,P (1977): â€Å" Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction†, In Karabel, J and A. H, Halsey, (ed), Power and Ideology in Education. OUP Economic and Political Weekly (2012): â€Å"The Right to learn: Two Years after the Right to Education Act, the government needs to focus on quality†,16 April, Vol XLVII No 16. Kumar, Krishna (2012): â€Å"Let a hundred children blossom: A classroom reflecting life’s diversity will benefit children of all strata while enriching teaching experience. †, The Hindu, Delhi,20 April 2012. Madan, Amman (2003): Education as Vision for Social Change, Economic and Political Weekly May 31, 2003 pp. 2135-2136 Sibal, Kapil (2012): â€Å"Admitting kids from weaker sections while not lowering quality of teaching will be difficult for pvt schools, but it can be done: RTE Can Be A Model For The World† The Times of India, New Delhi, 20 April. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, popularly known as the Right to Education (RTE) Act, came into being in India from April 1, 2010. The Act introduces a number of changes in education delivery through schools in India. Many of the changes are simply revolutionary, and if they are implemented properly will vastly improve the system of imparting education in the country. The Act is a landmark in the history of education related legislation in India. However, some of the provisions of the Act, although included with noble intentions, will have unintended consequences that might counter some of the advantages of the new system itself. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, as published in the Gazette of India [No. 39, Dated August 27, 2009] makes for interesting reading. I present below a critique of some of the salient provisions of the Act, and elucidate how these provisions also have unintended consequences that have not been addressed. Along the way, I also provide suggestions on what could be done better. Category 1: Decisions relating to screening and failing students (Section 16) No failing allowed: Section 16 of the RTE Act states that no child shall be failed in any class or expelled from school till he or she completes elementary education (defined as education imparted from Class 1 to Class 8). The Act also provides for special training for students who are deemed to be deficient and deserving of extra help. The Government reasons that failing a child is wrong, no matter the level of learning deficiency the child exhibits with respect to his or her peers. Any such deficiencies, the Government thinks, can be made up through special training provided by the school authorities under Section 4 of the Act. The intention of this rule is no doubt to support those children who are not able to attain the level of performance required to gain admission into the next class. Through this provision, the Government wants to reinforce that performance standards are relative, that failing a child is an unjust mortification for the child’s persona, and that a child younger than 14 is too young to be explicitly classified as deficient compared to his or her peers. While all these reasons hold good, a number of issues remain unaddressed: Skill development: While it is true that failing a child may well cause the child to intensely doubt his or her abilities, the Government fails to appreciate that failing a child also serves as a protective mechanism. Under the mechanism of failing, a child whose skills are clearly deficient with respect to his or her peers is held back in the same class and denied promotion. Failing therefore also acts as a protective mechanism, allowing a child to spend more time in the same class to make sure that he or she gains skills commensurate with his or her peers, and acts as a crucial aid in skill development. Under the new system, however, the child graduates to the next class regardless of performance or skill level in the previous one. The system then provides for special attention (through Section 4 of the Act) for such a child in the higher class to make up the deficiency in skills and ability. The critical question is – can a child who is unable to bear the workload of a junior class now deal with the workload of a senior class in addition to taking special classes? The embarrassment of failing, which under a system of failing a weak student is corrected at the first stage of inadequacy, now carries over into senior classes. This only accentuates the embarrassment that a child faces because of an increasingly steep learning curve which he or she finds ever more difficult to negotiate as compared to his or her peers. As a consequence, the child faces academic seclusion in the higher class. No feedback mechanism: Failing also acts as an important feedback mechanism, making the child and his parents and teachers aware that the child is deficient in critical skills. It also acts as feedback for teachers – if more students fail in a teacher’s class than those in other teachers’ classes, the teacher’s methods and effectiveness should be put under the scanner. However, under the new system, when every child is promoted to the next class irrespective of performance, both parents and teachers in general put in less of a marginal effort to ensure development of the child. The onus to support the child is passed from teachers and parents to schools (through Section 4 of the Act), and rarely, if ever, will teachers be held accountable for falling standards of teaching. Similarly, the incentive for children to learn is diminished, because the fear of failure and the repercussions of non-performance are removed. No doubt all consuming interest rather than fear should be the motive for sustained academic development of children but a system that ensures less accountability for all concerned (students, parents, and teachers) in no way creates a case for substituting ‘fear’ with interest. The stick has been removed, but where is the carrot? Postponing development does not work: One reason often put forward is that failing creates a frustration and lack of confidence in the child, causing them to drop out of school. However, a child that is deficient in skills will find it even harder to catch on in a senior class. The frustration and inclination to quit will therefore be even stronger. Ultimately, the child may be inclined to drop out of school in frustration with the system (experienced over a number of years) rather than with just a particular teacher or class. With the latter, there is still hope to bring the child back into the system. With the former, even that is gone. Inability to deal with failure: A child who does not learn the value of accountability, performance, and hard work in the initial stages of its schooling will be ill-equipped to meet these constants of life in later stages. The child will grow up not with resilience, but with a sense of entitlement, feeling that it is the duty of teachers to provide special training when he or she does not perform. When this sense of entitlement is suddenly removed after 14 years of age, the child may well feel deprived, unsupported, and unable to deal with performance expectations. Rewarding competence is the rule in all professions and vocations – why not embed it into the child at an early age? Category 2: Prohibition on physical punishment and ‘mental harassment’ (Section 17). Section 17(1) of the Act prohibits physical punishment or mental harassment of students. While a ban on physical punishment is laudable, the one on mental harassment is incompletely defined. What, after all, is ‘mental harassment’? It could be anything from a light admonition for not completing homework to vile abuses meant to strip the student of all self-respect. The Act sheds no further light. The problem then becomes one of establishing the commission of mental harassment itself. When rules are incompletely defined, they are subject to manipulation and misuse. Consider the plausible scenario when the rule on mental harassment is sought to be enacted. The clear and visible effect is that teachers will not be able to physically punish or mentally berate students. However, there are also some unseen effects. No clear escalation mechanism: One of the unseen effects is that in rural areas and impoverished regions, where acts of mental harassment are most often carried out, these acts are not even reported (except in severe cases). This is because the child risks arousing further displeasure of the teacher concerned, and is not assured of action in any case. Section 17(2) of the Act prescribes disciplinary action against any teacher violating the rule. However, in a set up where mental harassment is hard to establish, reporting mechanisms are poor, the social matrix favours teachers, and where administrators are already feeling a crunch of available teachers, strong action against the guilty is unlikely. If at all it is to be more effective, the provision needs to be given more teeth – establish a uniform reporting and escalation mechanism for teacher misconduct and ensure that whistleblowers are not at the receiving end of punitive measures. ‘Mental harassment’ not clearly defined: In an urban, metropolitan setting, again the loose definition of mental harassment becomes a problem. Here, students are more empowered, and find it easy to report any behaviour which would constitute ‘mental harassment’ in their opinion. In such schools, errant behaviour from students is encouraged because any admonishment, even if it is meant to serve as a correction, can be (mis)interpreted as mental harassment. This will reduce the effectiveness of teachers to administer suitable admonitory measures to this class of students. A solution for improvement, then, seems to be introduction of a uniform escalation and protection mechanism for students, along with clearly defining what mental harassment constitutes, allowing students and teachers to be aware of potential violations when they occur. Category 3: Only ‘recognized’ schools allowed to function (Section 18) Schools which do not have a certificate of recognition from the local authority or government shall no longer be allowed to function, under Section 18 of the Right to Education Act. If such a school is already functioning, the Act prescribes that it be shut down within 3 years if it fails to meet norms. If a new school is set up, it must conform to the norms for a school as laid out in the Schedule of the Act, or be shut down within three years. The norms themselves prescribe minimum teacher-student ratios for different classes, the existence of a permanent building, minimum number of working hours per teacher, and a functioning library, among other things. There is no doubt that a school which provides all of these will be superior in imparting education to an institution which provides only some of these. However, two main difficulties arise – it is erroneous to conclude that private, unrecognized schools offer a quality of education that is less than that offered by recognized schools, and banning private unrecognized schools further aggravates the problem of scarcity of formal education institutions. Unrecognized schools may be better than recognized ones: In a study conducted on private, unrecognized schools in the slums of East Delhi in 2004-05[1], James Tooley and Pauline Dixon from the University of Newcastle found that there were more unrecognized schools than government schools in the locality. In this research paper, the authors found, through unannounced visits, that a higher number of teachers were teaching in private unaided schools as compared to government schools. Further, they found that private unaided schools (including unrecognized ones) had superior or similar inputs than government schools. Most significantly, in this study, Tooley and Dixon found that children in unrecognized private schools scored 72% higher in Mathematics, 83% higher in Hindi, and 246% higher in English than students in government schools. Students in private unaided schools were found to be more satisfied with facilities being provided to them than their counterparts in government schools. Teachers in these schools reported a level of satisfaction similar to that reported by teachers in government schools. Importantly, even head teachers or principals were reported to maintain closer monitoring on teachers in private unaided schools (including unrecognized schools) than in government schools. Considering that monitoring and continuous evaluation of teachers is an important element of the strategy under the new Act, this last point gains even more significance. In another study conducted by Tooley and Dixon[2] in 918 schools within a locality in Hyderabad, 37 percent were found to be private unrecognized schools, compared to only 35 percent government run schools. Around 65 percent of school-going children in the area went to the private, unrecognized schools. It may be argued that this study was conducted only in particular areas, and that things might be different in other parts of the country. This notion is refuted by another study done by Karthik Muralidharan and Michael Kremer of rural private primary schools in India in 2003[3]. This study, as claimed by the authors, is a â€Å"nationally representative survey of rural private primary schools in India conducted in 2003†[4]. While conducting this research, the authors found that private schools are most common in areas with poor public school performance. In spite of paying lower teacher salaries, these schools have children with higher attendance rates and higher test scores. The teachers are 2 to 8 percentage points less likely to be absent as compared to public school teachers, and 6 to 9 percent more likely to be engaged in regular teaching activity. These research studies do present strong evidence for the view that private unrecognized schools are comparable, if not superior, to their government counterparts. The onus is on the government to prove conclusively that this is not so. Until this has been done, closing down the unrecognized schools, even with a 3 year grace period to confirm to standard regulations, might be hasty, unwarranted, and a step backward. Unrecognized schools solve the problem of outreach: Under Section 13(1), the Government has mandated that no school should collect any capitation fee for granting admission to a child. This move is welcome, and it will ensure that discretionary admissions are not the hegemony of the rich. However, having addressed the symptom, the Government has failed to address the underlying cause. Why do schools demand that capitation fees be paid for admission? The simple reason is that the number of children seeking admission is much higher than the number of seats available. The school therefore sees this as a convenient way of ensuring admission for those wards whose parents can contribute the most to the school financially. The presence of this phenomenon itself indicates the paucity of available education. The solution would be to either ensure that government schools or private recognized schools can ensure education for every child who seeks it. As this is a huge task and is not easily accomplished in at least the foreseeable future, private unrecognized schools must be a crucial part of the strategy for enabling outreach. Not only will this ensure a lesser burden on the government to set up new schools quickly, but it will also ensure that the overall vision of the Act – basic education for the widest base of children possible – is more convincingly achieved. We need to create more schools, not less. Private unrecognized schools are not the alternative to recognized institutions – they are the alternative to no education at all! By proposing to shut them down, the government decreases the outreach of education made possible by these institutions. An uncertain future for students: The RTE Act mandates that unrecognized institutions which fail to meet the set criteria will have to close down after a period of about 3 years. However, apart from mandating that the students in these schools will have a right to seek transfer to other schools within the area, the Act does not specify how and on what basis these students will be given admission in other schools. With recognized schools already straining under the burden of having to support free education for all students who approach them (till their capacity), the room for accommodating more students will be scarce. This itself will create uncertainty for students studying in these unrecognized institutions, and will also create a strain on recognized institutions to accommodate them later. The only alternative is for the state to open as many recognized schools (of approximately similar capacity) as the number of unrecognized schools that it closes down. A Times of India report[5] cites various studies that show that in Punjab, 86% of more than 3000 private schools are unrecognized and 3. 5 lakh children are enrolled in them. The report also says that in 1996, the Public Report on Basic Education in India (PROBE) survey of UP, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh found that 63% of private schools were not recognized. According to the report, Andhra Pradesh has 10,000 unrecognized schools, and Delhi has at least 1,500 catering to around 6 lakh children. The report also cites Prof Yash Aggarwal of the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA), who in 2000 had said that the number of unrecognized schools in the country was doubling every 5 years and the number of such schools was soon expected to be 1. 5 to 2 times that of government schools in the country. With 10 years already having passed since this assertion, one can assume that unrecognized schools form a large part of the educational backbone of India. To break this apart and yet keep the neck straight will be a difficult endeavour. Category 4: Prohibition of private tuition by teachers (Section 28) Section 28 of the RTE Act mandates that no teacher should engage himself or herself in private tuition activity. Through this provision, the Government is trying to address the problem of teachers not teaching properly in schools and then requiring students to attend private tuitions to actually learn the subject material. The intention again is worthy of appreciation – any provision that improves standards of teaching in the classroom and removes perverse incentives for teachers to earn money from their students through unethical means is welcome. A question of money: The primary reason why teachers underperform in the classroom and then require their students to attend private tuitions is the want of additional income, unfettered by a loose monitoring and punitive system. Banning teachers from taking private tuitions does not do away with the cause of the problem. With the RTE Act enforcing strict norms on the appointment of teachers, some aspirational educationists might well be forced to sit out. It is then possible for their collaborators inside the system to promote the seeking of private tuitions with these private teachers, with of course a money sharing arrangement being worked out between the two. While banning private tuitions by teachers themselves is a welcome step in this regard, this should also be reinforced with a ban on referring students for private tuitions. Monitoring this will not be an easy task, but then neither will be monitoring teachers to ensure they do not provide private tuitions. It is student reporting that must be the proof of misdemeanour in this case (with suitable verification and safeguards to ensure false reports are filtered out). Banning referral for private tuitions along with private tuitions by teachers themselves will make the legislation more complete. A question of performance: Even if private tuitions by teachers are successfully done away with, it still does not address the prevalence of teacher underperformance and absenteeism. One may argue that with an alternative source of revenue (private tuitions) now removed, teachers will be loath to take up government school jobs, as the effective income earned is lower. Some capable teachers who would otherwise have taught well in school, and also taken private tuitions, will therefore walk away from a government school teacher job, choosing to dedicate themselves completely to private tuitions. On the other hand, some less capable teachers, who were not teaching well in school but were supplementing their income through private tuitions, will elect to stay on. With the failing mechanism also removed, the performance evaluation of these teachers will become even more difficult. Underperformance, therefore, will stay, and teacher absenteeism will only increase (especially to pursue other income opportunities). Section 24 of the Act prescribes punitive measures to be undertaken in case absenteeism and non-performance of duties is observed. While it prescribes the minimum duties to be undertaken by each teacher, no specification is made of what constitutes high performance.

Education For Media Literacy Media Essay

Education For Media Literacy Media Essay Media literacy is an approach to education which provides a framework to analyze, evaluate and access messages in various forms and thereby building an understanding of the role of media in the society as well as self-expressions required for citizens of a democracy. Media literacy is the ability to know and understand how the mass media works. This includes how they are organized, how they produce their meanings and how they use them wisely. A person who is media literate can clearly describe the role of media in their lives. He or she understands the basics of various media and enjoys using them deliberately in a conscious way. He or she has full recognition that protects them from being unnecessarily frightened and therefore has a full control of his or her media experiences. Often, the media is lumped together as a single entity but in reality it is actually many forms of communication like the newspapers, billboards, television, radio, magazines, video games, computer games and videocassettes. Education for media literacy uses the inquiry-based pedagogic, model which encourages the people to ask questions in relation to what they read, hear and watch. Media literacy provides tools which help people analyze messages and offer them opportunities to broaden their experience of media. It assists them develop creative skills in coming up with their own media messages. Critical analysis includes identifying the author, his purpose and point of view, examining the construction techniques and genres, patterns of media presentation and detecting any bias, censorship and propaganda available in the news and public programming. Media literacy explores how structural features like the media ownership and funding model affects the information presented. Media literate people are skillful in creating and producing media messages to facilitate understanding of specific qualities of each medium and at the same time create independent media and participate as active citizens. Media literacy has contributed to an expanded conceptualization of literacy which treats mass media, popular culture and digital media as types of texts that require critical evaluation and analysis. Due to the transformation process of media consumption into an active and a critical process, people have gained a bigger awareness of the potential for manipulation and misrepresentation through public relations techniques and get to know the role of mass media in constructing the views of reality. Sometimes, media literacy is viewed as a channel to address the negative side of mass media, digital media and popular culture which includes gender, media violence and racial stereotypes, concerns about loss of privacy, internet predators, the sexualization of children and cyber bullying. Media literacy provides a type of protection for children and helps them make good decisions in their consumption habits and the patterns of their use. Learning abilities linked to media literacy can be used to create learning and teaching methods for example through mobile phones, internet based learning and interactive whitboard. Media interprets the past and shows us what has made us into being the way we are. Like geography, it defines for us our place in the world. Media literacy also helps us understand the workings of our immediate world and also our places individually in it. The media is also a major source of modern culture and entertainment and also requires us to learn and use the critical thinking skills. Media literacy helps us define how we communicate with others and also helps us to adopt the edge of modern technological innovations. Media literacy also helps us determine much of the cultural diet and weave part of the fabric part of our lives. Media literacy also helps us to understand ourselves as well as misunderstand ourselves and others. It helps us interpret our world, its ideas to us and its values. Media literacy helps us understand how things work, because it has carefully planned constructed and designed products. By helping kids and teens to become media literate, we can help them protecting them against pressures from advertising and several others media forms to drink, use drugs, eat unhealthy foods and have sex. We also help them build good communication skills , put portrayals of others as well as themselves, encourage them to look into multiple interpretations of media messages and also improve their media usage habits like changing the ritualistic viewing behaviors. The goal of media literacy is not bashing or to ridicule the media because it is a dominant force in our culture and therefore should be evaluated fairly and not denigrated. Media literacy is also not a magic wand or a silver bullet to solve all our problems but rather our best defense to resist manipulation and to keep a perspective of the images and messages that are a part of the youth culture and the media. Media literacy is therefore about helping students to become competent and critical in the various media forms so that they are well equipped to control the interpretation of what they observe and hear instead of letting the interpretation to control them. To be media literate is not about memorizing or taking statistics about the media but rather learning to raise the appropriate questions about what is seen, heard or read, in other words it is the ability to think for oneself. Without this ability, an individual cannot have the full dignity to exercise citizenship in a society which is democratic.

Digital Manipulation | The Ethics Of Photography

Digital Manipulation | The Ethics Of Photography Photography is a form of visual communication (LESTER, Paul, 2006). Photographs are used for a range of purposes including documenting personal events such as birthdays, weddings or christenings, for advertising products or services, for decorating the home, and for appointing authority and authenticity to news stories. Passports and other official forms of identification use photographs as a way to identify people. Current culture is image driven and we are exposed to imagery every waking hour of our lives through forms of visual media on the Internet, television, newspapers, magazines, mobiles phones and now tablets. In using photography to identify an individuals identity or to document the occurrence of an event, a great amount of trust must be invested in the medium of the photograph. Photographs are used in courtrooms as evidence, an occurrence that evidences the trust invested in photographs. By using photographs as evidence it is important to question if the medium of the photograph is an accurate recording of reality. In 2012 an Iranian news agency published an apparent newly developed military drone manufactured by Iran, see Figure 1. The published image was soon discovered to be an already published image of a drone developed by a Japanese University which had been modified to give the impression it was a new and authentic image of a new machine considered desirable by a government. This example evidences the developing ambiguous and potentially dishonest role of digital manipulation within photography. Image manipulation such as this encourages those who read these images and similar im ages to consider whether images have been manipulated and if so, to what extent and for what motivation. The readers of images must question the media that they read and question the veracity of the images whilst not awarding great doubts in the media in general or jumping to the conclusion that every image read has been manipulated. This dissertation will consider more fully inspect the manipulation of imagery, whilst particularly the development of digital photography and will evaluate how this process has affected media credibility. Iran successfully tests Koker-1 VTOL drone (PHOTO) Figure Manipulated image used by Iranian Government to try substantiate deveoplemt of military drone. Journalism in our society often requires the combination of visual and written information to both reach and inform a mass target audience. There is a difference between the photograph and the written representation which is that the camera is able to capture reality (NERI, GRAZIA, 2003). Early photographic technology required a subject to be still in order for it to be recorded whereas modern technology allows for a photograph to be made in less than a second. This significant development in technology means that subjects and material capable of being photographed have become far more extensive than in the early years of photography where limitations were imposed by both camera size and slowness of film. There is also a fundamental difference between photography and the written word in documenting situations. The written word allows an author to mediate reality, choosing what aspects of a subject to detail and describe, governed often by personality and knowledge of a subject. A pho tograph however, may be taken in a situation in which time is limited which in turn forces the photographer to record a subject with little conscious consideration to other objects within the image. Additionally, because the camera is seen as a mechanical device it is not considered to mediate reality like a written account. The camera instead is seen as a device that records truth and cannot be used subjectively (BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES, 1855). If a photograph is considered to have been be manipulated, for example through the use of exposure to give a different reading of the photographs meaning then this could be regarded as providing a less than this could be regarded as a subjective representation. Whereas in regard to the written word mediation is much less alarming due to our familiarity with literature as a subjective representation of reality. It is understood that words are made up of symbols and signs that express the subject they characterise. The word cup does not innately i nform the reader it means the object cup but rather the meaning of the word cup is understood by reading the letters of the word. Yet a photograph is able to demonstrate the appearance of the object it represents and it is able to make this representation with little interpretation required. An Inherent Realism Unlike painting or writing, a photograph can record a specific moment in time. A painting can be of a place that has never existed and literature may describe any place whether real or not. However the example of the Iranian military drone demonstrates that photography shares the same ability as painting and writing in that it can be subjective. Although, painting may be able to demonstrate the emotion of a subject, it is assumed that photography is unable to. In fact, photography has a stronger relationship with specificity as opposed to generality found in painting and writing (MITCHELL, WILLIAM J, 1992). Photographys ability to accurately document is recognised by governments who use photographs for identification purposes in official documents such as passports and driving licenses. Because photography is used for such official purposes, the relationship it holds with specificity is strengthened. However, the Iranian military drone example contests that a photograph may not alway s show the reality of the situation. Photography is powerful because it carries the authority of looking like reality. When looking through a clear glass window it is easy to forget that you are looking through a glass window at reality. Because photographs look so much like reality, it is easy to disregard the complex mechanical and scientific processes which combine to create the photograph. This mechanical and scientific process is not as simple as the window analoguey and will be further reconciled or distorted by considering the technology employed. It is this increasing reliance on science, where there is even no longer a latent image as with analogue processes by which the photograph is made which prompts legitimate and valid questioning of a photographs legitimacy. Barbara Savedoff (1997) uses the analoguey of a hallucination to describe the relationship a photograph has with reality. Savedoff argues that we know photographs are not real and that we know hallucinations are not real. However, photographs seem so real that it is difficult to determine the difference between representation of reality in the photograph and the fact that the photograph is only a representation to begin with. Furthermore, Savedoff points out that photographs do not just record a scene, they also capture a segment of the moment they represent. The idea that photographs contain light from the subject they recorded was considered greatly by early photographers and theorists. In analogue photography, light bounces off the subject and enters the lens and makes contact with the film starting a chemical reaction which produces an image on the surface of the film, creating an exposed negative. This light used to expose the negative has a specific relationship with the subject, the negative and later the printed photograph. Susan Sontag (On Photography, 1977) argues that this process is called the trace and refers to it as something directly stencilled off the real. John Berger (Uses of Photography, 1980) also maintains that the value of the photograph is found within its relationship with the subject. This raises the question when a photograph is manipulation what effect does it have on this relationship between light, subject and recording medium? It is important to note that before a photograph is manipulated the photograph may not already be an objective observation of a subject (HUEPPAUFF, BERND, 1977). It is the photographers decision from where and in what manner a subject or scene should be recorded. Other decisions include what to keep inside of the frame. Once the composition of the photograph is made, there are still variables controlled by the photographer that can ultimately change the way in which the photograph is read. The exposure of the photograph is another consideration, along with the edit performed by the person who has comissioned the photographer to make these photographs. In a news environment, an editor may choose the photographs he thinks best fit the objective of the agency regardless of whether or not that is an entirely accurate representation of the events that took place. These decisions can weaken the objectivity of the photographs made. When photographs are evaluated, one consideration is aesthetic quality (BARRETT, TERRY, 1985). Photographs made for journalism are seldom truly documentary (BARRETT, TERRY, 1985). Increasing the aesthetic value of documentary photographs is not new. During the Spanish Civil War, Robert Capa made a photograph of a militant being shot. It later turned out to be staged to create a more compelling photograph. The perspective of those who produce and broadcast photographs can also affect the way in which a photograph is understood (HUEPPAUFF, BERND, 1977). For example, if a photographer is photographing a public demonstration and they feel positively toward the demonstration, it is probable that they will make photographs that show the demonstration in a positive light. However, if the photographer was opposed to the demonstration then they are likely to record anti-social behaviour of members of those involved. This example shows how the photographer can manipulate the photograph and the reality it presents (BARRETT, TERRY, 1985). In summary, the photographs objectivity which is already questionable due to the way in which the photographer makes a photograph is further questioned as it may have been manipulated by those commissioning the photographer through the process of selection, ultimately undermining the objectivity of the photographer and photograph. Adnan Hajj photographed Beirut after an Israeli bombing. Hajj edited the photograph and added more smoke to make a more compelling photograph. Hajj used the clone tool within Adobe Photoshop to clone and copy smoke to additional areas of the photograph, see Figure 2. After initially publishing the photograph, Reuters withdrew it once members of the public claimed it had been manipulated. To anyone who asked to use Hajjs photograph, Reuters stated that the work was no longer available and stated that Hajj no longer works for Reuters (DAY, JULIA, 2006). The photograph was picked up by a blog, which recognised the fake because the same piece of smoke occurred in multiple places (DAY, JULIA, 2006). Manipulated images are normally harder to identify, especially with more advanced software and more experienced digital editors. This case evidences the desire for Hajj to make a more compelling photograph for his clients by manipulating the aesthetic qualities of his photograph. https://sites.google.com/site/tsoldrin/leb-phony.jpg Figure Adnan Hajjs manipulated representation of Beiruit Bombings in 2006 Nonetheless, Hajjs photograph was created subjectively but it is important to note that even photographs that are objective can be interpreted in different ways. For instance a photograph may be used in court to prove that an event has happened. During a trial the two opposing sides may read photographic evidence of the same subject in different ways, even from the perspective of the photographer who took the photograph. (HUEPPAUFF, BERND, 1977). It is apparent that photographs have never been entirely objective now or in years past. Additionally, it is apparent that they record the views of an individual as presented as if they were actuality. While with digital photography it may be easier to manipulate photographs due to the availability of digital cameras and imaging software over darkroom equipment, the truth is that photography has a historic relationship synonymous with manipulation. Derek Bouse (2002) reasons that people generally believe that the age of a photograph relates directly to its accuracy, and that the older a photograph is the more likely it has not been manipulated. However, still numerous instances of analogue photographs exist. For instance, a photographer employed by Mathew Brady during the American Civil War named Alexander Gardner rearranged a dead person on the battlefield to make a more compelling photograph, see Figure 3 (LESTER, MARTIN, 1991). It is important to recognise that this manipulation took place before the photograph was made. The practice of digital photography is still vulnerable to manipulation before the photograph is made however manipulation is usually carried out after the phot ograph is made. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAPgardner.jpg Figure Alexander Gardner rearranges the position of a corpse and gun to increase the drama of photograph Another photographer known for manipulating a photograph prior to making one is Edward Curtis. Curtis paid Native Indians to dress in exotic clothing and photographed them to make a more compelling photograph and to turn them into a spectacle for the public to view them (MICHAELIS, PAMELA, 2008). However, by dressing these subjects the worth of the photograph as document is reduced, see Figure 4. Although analogue technology was the latest available technology, it was still used to manipulate photographs, even after being made. For instance, in family portrait photographs it was common for members of the family to be cut and pasted into a photograph (Lodriguss, 2008). People would sometimes appear to be disproportionate to others in the pictures due to the position of the subject in the original photograph. In some photographs people are also seen floating. http://blog.lib.umn.edu/melan002/melandblog/Piegan-Lodge,%20clock.jpg Figure Edward Curtis changes the traditional dress of subjects and removes clock from the photograph An example of someone who used many negatives to form one photograph print is Oscar Rejlander. In the 1860s, for some pieces of work he used in excess of 30 negatives to create his well-known The Two Ways of Life which demonstrates a philosopher between a life of virtue and vice, see Figure 5. These composite prints were made by cutting together numerous negatives and using them to create a photographic print. In order for the final photographic print to be consistent from left to right, it was vital that sizing and contrast be the same to prevent people from hovering above the ground. Rejlander, before using multiple exposures and cutting negatives in photography was a painter. These examples show that even before digital imaging technologies existed there was extensive manipulation of photographs through analogue techniques. http://twcdc.com/andycox/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Oscar-gustave-rejlander_two_ways_of_life.jpg Figure Oscar Rejlander uses up to 30 composite negatives to create one photograph Using double exposures was also very common and was used often by photographers namely Eadweard Muybridge who photographed landscapes. The photographic materials of the 1850s were not very sensitive to green but were however very sensitive to blue. Therefore, landscape photographs were often improperly exposed. The correct exposure of the blue sky would render the foreground underexposed, or if the foreground would be exposed for the blue sky would be white with no detail. In order to solve this problem Muybridge and a handful of other photographers at the time would create negatives of desirable skies with differing cloud and all exposed properly. He would then use these negatives to add well exposed sky to his landscape photographs (SCOTT, AMY, 2006). The photograph produced would look natural to a viewer but is obviously a form of manipulation, a process often practised today by digital photographers. Muybridge photographed Yosemite and not only added a false sky but removed trees that prevented his view over the landscape, see Figure 6 (SCOTT, AMY, 2006). http://www.imaging-resource.com/ee_uploads/news/1284/muybridge-2.jpg Figure Edward Muybridge, used his collection of cloud negatives to combat technical limitations of early photography The so far discussed photographers have used manipulation to enhance the aesthetics of the photograph; however photography has also a large history with propaganda and political influences. Vladimir Lenin manipulated photographs as a form of propaganda to make historical events support his regime for the Soviet Union. Individuals who were seen as enemies of the state were often ordered to be killed by Stalin. If these individuals were to be within a photograph next to Lenin they would often be removed. Leon Trotsky is a prime example of this. Once Lenin had determined that Trotsky was an enemy of the state he was methodically removed from all traces of him from state photographs. Nikolai Yezov also suffered a similar fate once he fell out of favour with Stalin. This process of manipulation existing photographs carried on to the late 1900s. From looking at Muybridge, we can see that there are numerous stages in the manipulation and some of which are not clear that they have been altered. Edward Steichen states: A manipulated print may not be a photograph. The personal intervention between the action of the light and the print itself may be a blemish on the purity of photography. But, whether this intervention consists merely of marking, shading and tinting in a direct print, or of stippling, painting and scratching on the negative, or of using glycerine, brush and mop on a print, faking has set in, and the results must always depend on the photographer, upon his personality, his technical ability and his feeling (STEICHEN, EDWARD, 1903, p.48). Here Steichen is arguing that every decision the photograph carries out whether that be painting or scratching on the negative is a form of manipulation or as he calls it of faking. Steichen also refers to the personality, technical ability and his feeling which refers to the photographer and their intentions or motives which will manipulate or cause the process of faking. In the period of digital imaging some of these manipulations are seen as ethically acceptable and are not disputed. Media agency guidelines for manipulation, which we will talk about in greater depth soon, maintain that manipulations that were possible during analogue printing technique times are still genuine. These assertions are that if the chemicals used in the darkroom manipulated a photograph in a certain way then this would be a part of the photographic method and could not be criticised. Steichen obviously would not agree with this as he knows the extent to which analogue photographs can be manipulated. Digital Technology and Manipulation The first device invented that could digitise or make analogue photographs available in a digital format was a scanner made by Russell Kirsh in 1957 (TERRAS, MELLIA M, 2008). The scanner functioned by looking at the variations in tone within photographs and assigning a digital value to represent a tone band. Instead of creating a new photograph this scanner copied an existing photograph and recorded it digitally. Because photographs can be scanned to a digital format, the initial analogue negative can now be manipulated digitally and the truth value held by analogue photographs can now be challenged. Birth of Digital Imaging During the 1960s digital imaging technologies was still only used by large institutions such as NASA and the American government. It was not until the 1980s that the media began to use digital imaging technologies. Digital technology could be employed to enhance the clearness of television broadcasts and speed up the time in which photojournalists were able to send pictures to the media. In 1982, National Geographic published a photograph of the pyramids at Giza on the front cover of the magazine, see Figure 7. The photograph has been manipulated to fit a horizontal photograph of the pyramids onto the portrait cover of the magazine to make the front cover more captivating (TERRAS, MELLIA M, 2008). It is important to note that this instance of manipulation was one of the first by a recognised organisation. National Geographics editor, Fred Ritchen who decided to compress the pyramids felt he had achieved a new point of view by the retroactive repositioning of the photographer a few feet to one side (WRIGHT, TERRENCE, 1999, p.110). Ritchens defence to accusations of manipulating the photograph was that if the photographer had moved and taken the photograph at a different time of the day then the photograph would be the same (WRIGHT, TERRENCE, 1999). However the fact remains that this photograph was not the one that was made. The fact that the photograph was manipulated was not broadcast. It was admitted to have been manipulated when other journalists questioned the photograph. Howard Chapnick (LESTER, MARTIN, 1991, p.96) argued that the words Credibility and Responsibility allow photographers to call photography a profession due to ethical considerations rather than a business. Chapnick goes on to argue that not maintaining these ethics will damage journalistic impact and photography as a language. Lastly, he maintains the threat to credibility is permanent if people begin to disbelieve the news photograph. http://www.lagunabeachbikini.com/wordpress/wp-content/images/newspictures/national-geographic-feb82.jpg Figure National Geographic Magazine Cover 1981 In 1985 digital cameras became widely used by professional photographers. Companies also marketed digital imaging camera to the public for domestic use. During this time the processing capabilities of computers was also advancing and provided a way for individuals to load image manipulation software and manipulate photographs. In 1991 the American government and the media used digital photography as a technology for the first time in a war environment. Not only was digital photography used to photograph the war but was used in weapon systems by America (FLORIDI, LUCIANO, 1999). A much more current use of digital imaging technology is live electronic manipulation. Manipulating a live feed allows the editing of satellite image feeds. On the fly image editing may be used in sports programming to show lines on pitches or by governments to hide classified buildings from satellite imagery that is available to the public such as Google Maps. News television channels can also employ technology to sow text feeds beneath news anchors. Delta Tre supply FIFA with sports data services and on screen graphics (BEVIR, GEORGE, 2012). In 2012, the union of European Football Associations placed recorded footage of a fan crying at the opening of the game and played it after one of the teams had won the game to make for more compelling television. Ivan Amato (Lying with Pixels, 2000) argues that as this technology becomes more widespread and available the credibility of video media will be damaged permanently. In some ways this is similar to National Geographics manipulated Pyr amid in that both representations existed but were manipulated to give heightened sensation. The abilities that digital imaging technology have provided have been used by Walt Disney Imagineering Studio to take existing photographs and film of aged or dead celebrities made in the past to be used in new programmes or films (AMATO, IVAN, 2000). This use of technology to manipulate media, demonstrates how analogue photographs and films are susceptible to these processes and also questions the fundamental nature of the final product? Is it simply a manipulated piece of video footage or a new creation entirely? Mitchell (The Reconfigured Eye: Truth in the Post-Photographic Era, 1992) argues that it is a new creation entirely. Mitchell also argues that photography in recent times has entered a phase which he terms pseudophotography meaning that digital photography is not photography. Though the two methods are comparable, they possess different manipulation potentials which are examined in the next section. Manipulation Since Digital photography Savedoff (1997, p.19) argues that technologies alter rather than simply add to the resources of art. This suggests that photography as an art form has been altered by added manipulation potential. This new digital imaging practice should pose a whole range of ethical considerations relating to the manipulation of photographs. However, this has largely failed to have happened due principally to differentiating between the printed or published digital or analogue photograph creating difficulty in identifying and developing a set of different standards for each method. Photographys relationship with reality as previously outlined is apparent in digital photography, however the relationship created by the subjects personal relationship with light as evinced by Sontag and others will be absent in a digital photograph. There is no latent image. In an analogue photograph created through a chemical process there is room for argument that the relationship with light remains intact. Although t his trace looks to be evident in a photograph created by digital means, the trace is not a chemical reaction but a digital representation of reality and therefore not an embedded feature of the relationship between the subject and the photographic process as with analogue. Additionally, the very nature of digital photography means that the process is limitless in the number of alterations or manipulations that can be applied. These manipulations leave little or no evidence of themselves. Modern digital cameras allow the photographer to instantly review the image made and thus allows them amend the and other factors of image capture until the photographer is satisfied with the final result. Images are manipulated by using computers and image editing software such as Adobe Photoshop, along with scanners to digitise analogue images. Therefore, photographs made before digital photography are susceptible to manipulation just like the case of Disney outlined earlier (BOUSE, DEREK, 2002). The development of digital imaging technology has changed photography and its relative relationship with veracity permanently. This lends evidence to Bouses argument that old photographs may be more widely trusted and that digital photography makes readers of images aware not only of current manipulations but of those in the past also. The reader of an analogue photograph, although aware that the photograph was made before the invention of digital technologies is aware that the photograph might have been manipulated and nonetheless changes the way the reader interprets all photographs, manipulated or not (SAVEDOFF, BARBARA E, 1997). This suggests that digital technology has decrease the impression that photographs are mostly objective and truth-relating and that there is a greater tendency for viewers of images to question the veracity of all photographs. A key factor in this significant reduction of trust is the difficulty for the average reader to easily and readily distinguish between manipulated and non-manipulated photographs. Conversely Michelle Henning (2007) argues that digital imaging technologies have enabled limited new ways of manipulating a photograph. Henning continues that digital technologies have only made the manipulation of photographs more available. Henning also argues that the public was previously unaware of image manipulation techniques before the invention of digital imaging technology. Digital manipulation has made the public more aware of photo manipulation and paradoxically served to increase the frequency with which images are manipulated. Evolution of a Medium Photography has been constantly developing since its birth in the 1800s and many of the changes have been driven by evolving technology but were always based on chemical reactions to light. In the 1820s Joseph Niepce found a method to permanently fix a photograph using lavender oil and bitumen. Niepce swiftly developed this method further into heliographs made by using silver nitrate. Eduard Daguerre was also looking for a way to photographically record subjects and contacted Niepce to work with each other. After Niepce died, Daguerre found that mercury could fix images much more permanently and created the Daguerreotype which Daguerre believed at the time serves to draw nature and gives nature the power to reproduce herself (MARIEN, MARY WARNER, 2002, p.23). Since photographys invention the idea of a device that could create unmediated representations of reality was widely believed yet now we begin to see photography may not deserve the verisimilitude it has been ascribed. At the sa me time Henry Fox Talbot worked on a photographic method using paper print. Like the creation of photography and the creation of digital photography these changes and advances were driven simultaneously by several individuals at once. The daguerreotype became the most popular and was widely used to make very simple portraits. Later though, interest was given to the Calotype created by Talbot. The Calotype was less reliable but allowed for prints to be reproduced much more easily and allowed greater detail with the print at least initially. During the mid-1800s negatives were made from glass and coated with albumen paper. These proved much more reproducible and gave more detailed and sharper results than earlier methods. With regard to contemporary digital methods, has digital photography made reproducing images easier due to the fact that digital images when stored on a computer can be duplicated instantly, require no specialist education, now contain little or no cost and can be tr ansmitted and viewed globally without a physical print ever being produced? Being able to reproduce a photograph has always been desirable and this is shown by the demand for the Calotype. Bearing in mind that digital imaging technology has helped progress the ease, convenience and technical, it has done this in a way that has divided the two forms of photography causing great debates among both practitioners and observers of both. Mark Amerika, digital artist and writer, in an interview draws attention to and discusses the differences between digital and analogue photography. Amerika claims that images and how they are read is influenced by the way they are captured, suggesting that as technology changes so does our interpretation of photographs (JACUPS, Karen, 2006). Because photography is much more easily manipulated with digital photography it can be argued that the objectivity of the photograph is lost and it is futile to pursue objectivity (JACUPS, Karen, 2006). It would seem true that manipulation is more common since the advent of digital photography, which could argue that the making of an image is only a small portion of the final product like in the aforementioned case of Rejalnder. Both Mitchell and Savedoff claim that digital photography and the manipulation of it cannot be compared to analogue photography because it is a new medium (MITCHELL, WILLIAM J, 1992) (SAVEDOFF, BARBARA E, 1997). Both continue to argue that because with digital photographs the image is created with a digital sensor digital capture is a separate process to analogue capture. Digital photographs receive their authority because they are almost identical to analogue photographs and this authority is passed to the digital photograph. However, if this authority is diminished, digital photography may be criticised for its lack of authority. News reporting currently accomplished by digital photography may Siemans: Micro Environment and BCG Analysis Siemans: Micro Environment and BCG Analysis SIEMENS COMPANY REVIEW BACK GROUND TO THE STRATEGIC DECISION Siemens is a worldwide leading organization in electronics and electrical engineering industry which is operating in the sector of energy, communication and healthcare sector. There are few industries working in the global market of small and large business which have maintained their successful history of quality products and customer satisfaction. Siemens is also one of those well known and established organizations, having proud to be the leading business. Siemens was founded by Werner Von Siemens and Johann Georg Halske in 1847. The Production Electrical Telegraphs are the remarkable source of Siemens for the past many decades to achieve the large amount of its overall sales. For more than one and a half century, Siemens is still popular in competitive industries for its innovative achievements, technical supports, quality, reliability, and globalization. Being the environmental friendly is one of many other positive aspects of Siemens to feel proud of. Almost one third of their revenue is generated by environmental friendly green products and solutions. â€Å"In fiscal 2009, ended on September 30, 2009, Siemens had revenue of â‚ ¬76.7 billion and net income of â‚ ¬2.5 billion. At the end of September 2009, the company had around 405,000 employees worldwide.† (www.siemens.com) To acquire the long run and effective advantages, generally most of the organizations utilize Strategic decisions. Strategic Decisions help the businesses maintain their quality on the long term directions. Strategic decisions are comprised by considering the organizations activities and analysis to decide the working areas of any organizations. Siemens strategic decisions are quiet clear so far. Siemens basic strategy is to focus particularly on innovation and technology driven growth markets and until the substantive time they have been quiet successful in setting up the trend of new technology and capturing leading positions maintaining their strength of local existence and creating local values on the global level. Siemens believed in diversification and innovation since the establishment which make outstanding business sector. They started identifying market particulars upcoming trends and drawing the strategic results early on. Some years past, Siemens improved their portfolio to four megatrends including demographic change, urbanization, climate change and globalization which are already influencing our daily life today, and the impact of these trends is increasing substantially in the decades. The activities into the sectors of Industry, Energy and healthcare have been the main points of consideration for business. They also set the stage to achieve leading positions and customer satisfaction in attractive continuous growth markets. MICRO ENVIRONMENT ANALYSIS Organizations have adopted the internal analysis as a key feature with the frequently changed environment nowadays. To face the environmental change in the ongoing time it has been more useful for the businesses developing strategies utilizing their own resources and capabilities. Siemens has already made it the prior concern for its organization believing their internal resources and strategies as the main strength to achieve their goals. Financial Resources: The group recorded revenues of E77,327 million (approximately $116,294.4 million) during the financial year ended September 2008 (FY2008), an increase of 6.7% over the financial year ended September 2007 (FY2007). The operating profit of the group was E2,492 million (approximately$3,747.8 million) during FY2008, a decrease of 50.2% compared with FY2007. The net profit was E5,725 million (approximately $8,610 million) in FY2008, an increase of 50.4% over FY2007.(Data Monitor Siemens AG). Physical Resources: Siemens are very diversified in geographical presence. They operate in 190 countries spread over the Americas, Europe, CIS, Africa, Asia, Australia, and Middle East. During FY2008, the group generated 26.1% of its revenue from Americas, 52.7% from Europe, CIS, Africa, and 21.2% from Asia, Australian, and Middle East. (Data Monitor Siemens AG) Human Resources: It is in the concern of Siemens that outstanding, competitive and innovative employees are their strength and valuable assets. All of their employees are highly trained, focused and innovative. This belief in their staff plays an important role for Siemens to sustain in the world market. Reputational Resources: Siemens is operating in over 190 countries and for over 160 years. It had created a good and remarkable reputation around the world. They have made them very diversified and manufactured their own brands. Their brands include generators, electrical products, healthcare equipments and many others are some of the outstanding and famous worldwide. MACRO ENVIRONMENT ANALYSIS There are some factors that keep changing time to time. These factors are called External factors. No organization can depend on it because of their constant change. Organizations are facing many economic and global problems to sustain. Due to the present dynamic environment; internal strength has been the key part for organizations rely on in order to face any of these challenges. As far as Siemens is concerned, they have been well prepared and have completed their homework keeping these challenges in front. They introduced remarkable measures that will not only help them surviving these crisis without being highly affected but also they will emerge much stronger with the passage of time. Because they began research, identified market specific and started to draw the strategic consequences quite early on to prevent their strength getting weak. Their integrated homework made them able to precisely consider the upcoming opportunities and threats. This homework helped them identify the nature of advantages, opportunities and threats before the time which are: Opportunities: Siemens had bought quite a few businesses in recent years because they think that these businesses have potential to drive its business growth. â€Å"In January 2007, the group acquired US based UGS, one of the leading providers of product lifecycle management (PLM) software and services for manufacturers. In the same month, Siemens Water Technologies strengthened its service and product business in the US with acquisitions of four companies: Envirotrol, CEC, Pure Water Solutions, and Sunlight Systems. In November 2007, the group acquired Dade Behring Holdings, a manufacturer and distributor of diagnostic products and services to clinical laboratories.† (Some information is taken from www.siemens.com) Threats: Siemens had done all their homework but still threats lie in front of them. Siemens faces intense competition across its market segments. As Siemens is a huge industry with different sectors their competition is much higher than other industries. Their main competitors in the industry sectors are ABB, Alstom, Bombardier, Emerson Electric, General Electric Company, Honeywell International, Johnson Control, Philips, Schneider Electric, and Tyco International. (Information is gathered from www.datamonitor.com). Likewise in energy sector as well its main competitors are General Electric, Alstom Powers, Mitsuibishi, Abbott and lots more. As it is quite clear that, such competition could adversely affect the revenues and profit margins of the group. DIRECTIONS FOR GROWTH It very important for organizations to be vigilant when choosing the strategic direction, it is a useful method for organizations to launch their products in the market and in order to gain competitive and desired advantages. As it is pointed out by Johnson, Scholes and Whittington that: organizations should be aware of 3 types of motives or pressures that may shape their choice which are: Environment Based Motives: As Siemens is concerned they already had pointed out the growth of economies in the different continents. â€Å"The group operates in about 190 countries Spread over the Americas, Europe, CIS, Africa, Asia, Australia, and Middle East. During FY2008, the group generated 26.1% of its revenue from Americas, 52.7% from Europe, CIS, Africa, and 21.2% from Asia, Australian, and Middle East†. (www.datamonitor.com) Resource Based Motives: As being one of the most diversified groups Siemens have very strong resource capabilities. Due to their high revenues Siemens can afford to spend lucrative amount on their RD. In 2008 Siemens increased its research and development investment to (approximately $5,690.9 million). Igor Ansoff has developed a well known matrix system to analyze the directions of strategies and mix between the products which a company sells and the market is to be sold. Siemens has set the task for capturing leading positions in attractive growth markets. In order to maintain their position Siemens targeted their business activities to some sectors including Industry, Energy and Healthcare. Siemens direction of its strategy lies in all 4 stages of Ansoff matrix. Market Penetration: With the help of its targeted business activities in leading growth market Siemens is constantly penetrating the market. They also have a much diversified customer based group. This group has industrial, infrastructural and diversified customers. The group can be classified in markets like as transport and logistics (such as transport authorities), construction, communication, real estate, metals and mining, machinery, utilities, automotive and many others. Market Development: Siemens is operating in over 190 countries and for over 160 years and generating high revenues which is increasing with the passage of time. Its because they had identified their opportunities and threats. Their prior homework of seeking new markets made them able to achieve the targeted financial market. Product Development: Product development is a very effective and attractive way to counteract a new entrant in market. Product development is to introduce new product to the market or the same product with enhanced and added new services. Siemens has been successful maintaining their vast market, product quality and customer satisfaction around the globe. The basic sectors Health, Industry and Energy are the ones providing them a remarkable deal of opportunities to develop their products. Some of the products and services in energy sector spectrum such as LED energy saving lighting and building control system are up-gradation to their products for their present markets. Diversification: Diversification is one of the key parts for organizations to gain competitive advantage over their competitors. On the other side it includes a great deal of risk for organizations because a huge amount money is required to invest lucrative amount in RD. As The Siemens is a market business leader in the growing sectors, so it deals with the risk to diversify with upper hand. Siemens had always believed in innovation and the technology as said by the founder of the Siemens Werner Von Siemens â€Å"If you are not moving forward you are moving backwards.† Siemens diversify its business by two different ways. Related Diversification: Siemens operates in various sectors of the business market. It provides so many opportunities to diversify beyond the substantive product market within the broad confines of the ongoing industry. Siemens always tried the best in their value chain to gain new products market and customer satisfaction. In industry sector Siemens offers different products such as services like building, communication, lighting, mobile solutions and in energy sector they are providing distribution of power, conversion, extraction and lot more. Unrelated Diversification: Siemens has also diversified its business sector activities beyond its current scope or industry sector. Because of dealing with three business sector activities, Siemens always believed in technology and innovation in their products and services. It requires a great deal of investment in RD. Siemens has a very powerful RD. Recently Siemens had increased their research and development investment to E 3,784 million. Siemens invested with Fujitsu in laptops, which is a very good example of unrelated diversification. PORTFOLIO ANALYSIS The strategy of Siemens portfolio is quite clear for the past many years which set the target to capture and maintain the Number 1 or Number 2 in the future profitable and competitive markets. By doing that Siemens believe they can survive and get through in the difficult constantly changed environment. Siemens is concentrating deeply on renewable energy and organic growth of various products and services. In the past five years they had invested 20 billion Euros in the acquisition of growth business. Siemens has established its leading position in the attractive growth market working out with its three business sectors Healthcare, energy, and industry. As a part of DESERTEC a Solar Thermal Power in Sahara and Wind Farm in Europe are being constructed. They have also being producing Smart Grid Solutions based Technologies such as Electric Cars and lot more. The best and precise portfolio Analysis of Siemens is comprised by Boston matrix. BCG Matrix Siemens AG METHOD OF DEVELOPMENT Siemens have varieties of methods and strategies to develop their SBUs (Strategic Business Unit). It is because they had a diversified business culture worldwide and they operate in 3 major sectors Healthcare, Energy and Industry. Siemens is constantly operating with their strong partners and developing their services to beat their competitors, therefore they are gearing the value chain to efficiency. They believe that for outperforming their competitors they have to consistently work out and improve their services better than they are. Following the belief of always being better than they are, Siemens is successfully developing their services to sustain in the market and improve customer satisfaction. As a diversified business Siemens believe in utilizing different methods of development. Strong RD department is one of their strenghts. They are able to afford the Organic development. They also intend to continue the assurance of strict resource allocation in the future; they are ver y keen on the Organic growth. In the past five years Siemens have invested Twenty billion Euros in the organic development. There was a significant increase in RD budget and it got its RD location in more than 30 countries worldwide. Siemens is also keen to acquire growing businesses. They had recently invested more than 20 billion Euros in order to acquire businesses. Siemens is constantly optimizing its portfolio of Products. Every year numerous acquisitions and divestitures are completed by Siemens. â€Å"In 2005 alone, Siemens invested around EUR 2.5 billion in new businesses and the 2006 figure will be substantially higher. On the divestment side, the carve-outs of BenQ, Product Related Services and Logistics Assembly have caused a stir. Regarding recent prominent acquisitions, such as Flender AG (Germany), CTI (USA), Bonus (Denmark), US Filter (USA) or VA Tech (Austria), Siemens Management Consulting were primarily involved in the pre- and post-merger integration (PMI) work†. (Information is gathered from www.smc.siemens.de) It is Siemens belief that acquisitions helped them come closer to achieve their goal of growing a fast global market. Siemens is also running many joint ventures with one of their SBUs for obtaining growth. Such as Siemens and Nokia have announced their intention to merge the network business of Nokia and the carrier related operations of Siemens into a new company which they will call Nokia Siemens networks. Its a 50-50 joint venture. In which both parties will invest half and half share. Both parties are looking forward to stand as a Global Leader with strong position in current important growth segments of fixed and mobile network infrastructure and services.